Hate Speech

Ardita Dylgjeri, University of Elbasan "Aleksandër Xhuvani", Albania
ardita.dylgjeri@uniel.edu.al

Ana Milojevic, University of Belgrade, Serbia
an.milojevi@fpn.bg.ac.rs

Hate speech refers to any form of communication—spoken, written, or symbolic—that disparages or incites hostility against individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender, sexual orientation, language, disability, health status, or social origin. Its primary function is to stigmatise, dehumanise, and marginalise its targets, often fostering a hostile social environment.

Despite frequent usage in public discourse and regulation, the term lacks a universally agreed-upon definition. Brown applies ordinary language analysis to explore how hate speech is used in everyday contexts. He outlines a set of widely held assumptions or ‘folk platitudes’, including the beliefs that hate speech conveys moral condemnation, targets protected groups, is harmful, and is potentially subject to legal restriction. Although often thought to express hatred, Brown argues that hate speech is not necessarily motivated by hatred itself.

This ordinary language perspective echoes Wittgenstein’s idea that the meaning of a word lies in its public use rather than any fixed essence. Accordingly, hate speech should be understood as a ‘family resemblance’ concept—one with overlapping but not identical features across contexts.

Parekh identifies three core features of hate speech: it targets protected characteristics, stigmatises the group, and marginalises its members from full societal participation. Meanwhile, Moran adds emphasis on the intent behind hate speech, particularly its function in promoting hostility against socially vulnerable groups.

The term is also used interchangeably with ‘intolerance’ or ‘discriminatory language’ in both academic and media settings, underscoring the need for careful, context-aware analysis when identifying or regulating such speech.

Keywords: hate speech, discrimination, ordinary language analysis, harm, intent.

Related Entries: Slurs, Impoliteness, Incivility (1), Incivility (2), Polarisation

References:
Brown, A. D. (2017). Identity work and organisational identification. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19(3), 296–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12152
Moran, L. J. (1994). The meaning of hate speech. De Gruyter Mouton.
Parekh, B. (2006). Hate speech. Public Policy Research, 12(4), 213–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1070-3535.2005.00401.x
Wittgenstein, L. (2009). Philosophical investigations. (P. M. S. Hacker & J. Schulte, Eds.; G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans.). Wiley-Blackwell. (Original work published 1953)
Marwick, A. E., & Miller, R. W. (2014). Online harassment, defamation, and hateful speech: A primer of the legal landscape. Fordham University School of Law.