Argument

Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland
barbara.lewandowska-tomaszczyk@konin.edu.pl

Argument is a reason or set of reasons given in support of an idea, action, or theory. Arguments are prototypically based on logical reasoning. In formal logic, the reasons offered within the argument are referred to as premises, and the proposition for which the premises are offered is called the conclusion. Copi and Cohen offer the follwing as an example:

[1] Tom is happy only if he is playing guitar.

[2] Tom is not playing guitar.

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∴ [3] Tom is not happy.

Arguments are commonly classified as deductive or inductive. A deductive argument is an argument that an arguer puts forward as valid. For example: ‘All men are mortal (premise). Socrates is a man (premise). Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion).’ An inductive argument is an argument that an arguer puts forward as inductively strong. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they were true, then it would be unlikely, although possible, that the conclusion is false. For example: ‘Every swan I have seen is white (premise). Therefore, all swans are white (conclusion).’ The strength of an argument is assessed by its validity (for deductive arguments) and soundness, or its strength and cogency (for inductive arguments). A valid deductive argument is one where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. For inductive arguments, strength refers to the probability that the conclusion is true given the premises.

According to Johnson, pragmatic definitions of arguments draw attention to the function of argument, such as Walton’s seeing their use as tools of rational persuasion, originally proposed in Aristotle’s persuasive appeals, which, when integrated as a rhetorical triangle, would make an argument optimally persuasive: Ethos, which focuses on the author's credibility, Pathos, which involves appealing to the audience's emotions, and Logos, which appeals to the audience's sense of logic and reason.

Keywords: conclusion, deductive argument, inductive argument, persuasive appeal, premise

Related Entries: Conjecture, Evidence, Persuasion

References:
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Copi, I. M., & Cohen, C. (2005). Introduction to logic (12th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hitchcock, D. (2007). Informal logic and the concept of argument. In J. Jacquette (Ed.). Philosophy of logic handbook of the philosophy of science (pp. 101-129). Elsevier Science Direct.
Johnson, R. H. (2000). Manifest rationality: A pragmatic theory of argument. Laurence Erlbaum.
Sinnott-Armstrong, W. & Fogelin, R. J. (2010) Understanding arguments: An introduction to informal logic (8th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Walton, D. N. (1996). Argument structure: A pragmatic theory. University of Toronto Press.